Examining The Sharia Law Religion Essay

Inspecting The Sharia Law Religion Essay For every, we have named a celestial law and a followed out way. Had God willed, He could have made you one network. In any case, that He may attempt you by that which He has given you. So compete one with another in acts of kindness. Unto God you will all arrival, and He will at that point advise you regarding that wherein you vary. Quran, 5:48 Presentation After the grievous occasions of 9/11, Islam has overwhelmingly been under expanded enquiry and investigation. The status of ladies has been focused on incredibly, frequently marking Islam as harsh towards ladies. History In Arabic, Sharia truly implies the route to the watering opening, emblematically implying that in the cruel and troublesome condition of the Arabian desert, following the way to the watering gap would guarantee endurance. Thus, in a strict setting, on the off chance that the Sharia was followed devotedly, at that point it would lead the dedicated into a pleasurable existence in the wake of death. Sharia Law (or Islamic Law) is based up two establishments: The Quran which Muslims accept to be the immediate expression of God sent down from Angel Gabriel to the Prophet Mohammed. The subsequent establishment is the Sunnah and Haddith. The Sharia is un-classified at this point orderly lawful framework. Un-classified since it has not been recorded or gathered to make at least one legitimate lawful manuals, however by the by it is methodical in light of the fact that it is a conceivable arrangement of precepts dependent on strict convictions. It is basic to get that in spite of the fact that the Sharia is efficient lawful framework, it doesn't have clear and very much characterized sets of decides and guidelines that can be handily applied to genuine circumstances. This is the place the job of the Ulama (strict researchers) is imperative, since they are ones who commit their lives to contemplating the Sharia and consequently gain the power to decipher the Sharia to determine lawful issues and apply it to genuine circumstances. As the researcher Knut S. Vikor portrays: The Sharia is best comprehended as a mutual assessment of the [Islamic] people group, in light of a writing that is broad, however not really intelligible or approved by any single body. Adherents of Islam accept that the Prophet Mohammed (c. 570 632) was the last and most noteworthy of the Prophets that God has sent to uncover the Holy Quran. They accept that his lessons supplement and explain the messages of prior prophets whose message were held to be misshaped or lost throughout the years. The Prophet Mohammed is see as a definitive good example and his life is a guide to Muslims on how the perfect Islamic life ought to be lead yet they don't venerate him. Despite what might be expected, they accept from the Holy Quran, that Angel Gabriel uncovered verbally to the Prophet Mohammed, that God is transcendent, one of a kind, attributing no accomplices and no equivalent, in this manner Muslims never treat the Prophet as a Divinity. Prophet Mohammed was conceived in Mecca, Saudi Arabia around c. 570. As he got more seasoned, he turned into a broker and by the age of 25 he wedded Khadija bint Khuwaylid, a rich agent who was 15 years his senior. In around 610, Mohammed was thinking alone in a cavern and as per Haddith went along by al-Bukhari, Angel Gabriel as a man showed up before the Prophet. Gabriel requested Mohammed: Recite! Mohammed answered: I am not ready to peruse. The heavenly attendant at that point gave him a bone-pulverizing grasp that it arrived at the constraint of his continuance and afterward discharged him. Again the heavenly attendant arranged him: Recite! Mohammed again answered: I am not ready to peruse. After a third grasp and discharge, the holy messenger requested Mohammed: Recite! Mohammed at that point presented the accompanying: Present for the sake of thy Lord who made made man from clumps of blood. Present! Your Lord is the Most Bountiful One, who by the pen trained man what he didn't have the foggiest idea. This at that point was the main disclosure of the Holy Quran which later shaped the principal opening refrains of Surah (section) 96 of the Quran. It took a time of 23 years for the whole disclosure of the Holy Quran to frame as we probably am aware it today. As indicated by Muslims, they accept that the Prophet himself was ignorant and consequently his educated supporters would compose the disclosures with whatever they could put their hands on, bits of paper, stones, palm-leaves, shoulder-bones, ribs, and bits of cowhide. A legitimate form of the Quran was created after the Prophets passing in 632. The Quran The Quran comprises of 144 Surahs which, rather than being submitted in sequential request, they are gathered arranged by their length where the more drawn out parts toward the start and shorter sections towards the end (except for the initial section Al-Fathia). What's more, in spite of the fact that the premise of Sharia comes somewhat from the Holy Quran, in reality it doesn't contain many precise guidelines of law. As indicated by the researcher Mohammed Hashim Kamali, he presumed that under 3 percent of the Holy Quran really managed legitimate issues. These discoveries were likewise authenticated with another researcher by the name of N.J. Coulson who additionally reasoned that: The Quran is in no sense a complete lawful code. Close to 80 refrains manage legitimate issues; while these stanzas spread a wide scope of themes and present numerous novel standards, their general impact is basically to change the current Arabian standard law in certain significant points of interest. In spite of the low quantities of legitimate decisions from the Quran itself, it is the lawful standards in which the Holy Quran presents that makes the principal idea of Sharia Law and that Muslims legal advisers draw from the good and moral qualities, which shapes the Islamic message that originates from the Holy Quran, to make decisions and educated sentiments on numerous lawful issues that the Quran doesn't cover. For instance, the primary topic that is seen all through the Holy Quran is Justice (Adl) and this has a focal impact in the Sharia. Adl actually implies setting things in the correct spot where they have a place. The Sharia attempts to build up Adl by mediating complaints and parleying questions to the people in question, yet additionally looks to organize Adl in general all through the network by setting up balance of advantages and focal points in the public eye. We sent our Messengers with confirmations and uncovered the Book and the equalization through them in order to build up equity among individuals 57:25 Holy Quran. The Quranic norms of Justice are goal and independent of innate, racial, national, national or strict foundations and contrasts. There at any rate fifty-three delineations in the Holy Quran where individuals are routed to be simply to others at all levels, in close to home or open issues, in words and directs, with companions or adversaries, Muslim or non-Muslim, all must be treated in decency and with equity. O devotees! Stand apart solidly for equity as observers to God, regardless of whether it be against yourself, your folks and family members and whether it be against rich or poor. 4:135 Holy Quran. What's more, when you talk (ensure that you) talk with equity. 6:152 Holy Quran. The Sharia doesn't just controls legitimate rights and duties of the Muslim individuals, however it additionally gives moral direction of life and human action by and large. Therefore the Sharia is part into two principle arrangements Ibadat (reverential issues) and muamalat (common exchanges). Ibadat is the principles concerning matters and the connection among man and God. Note that these strict commitments are coordinated towards the individual and fall outside the extent of the courts locale. Though muamalat is worried about the detachment of the Right of God (haqq Allah: which alludes to the privileges of the network or open rights) and the Right of Man (haqq al-abd: which alludes to private rights). Under the umbrella of Ibadat, there are the 5 lawful mainstays of Sharia: [a] The declaration that there is no god yet God and that Mohammed is the Messenger of God (Shahadatayn); [b] The exhibition of supplication (Salat); [c] The installment of offerings charge (Zakhat): [d] The presentation of journey (Hajj); lastly [e] fasting during the period of Ramadan (Sawm). Here Islam centers in ingraining characteristics of equity, reliability, and honorableness through these demonstrations of dedication (Ibadat). Ibadat are a piece of instructing the adherent to abstain from making hurt others and decontaminating the psyche and heart from debasement, self-centeredness and over guilty pleasure in material perfectionists. Clearly petition gets one far from foulness and underhanded, and positively the recognition of God s the best (type of dedication) 29:45 Holy Quran. Moreover, performing Salat in gathering upholds the principle of solidarity, uniformity and solidarity among admirers. These conventions are consistently present in the remainder of the lawful columns; fasting, offerings charge, and the exhibition of the journey all show self supporter, penance, and affectability towards others. All the more significantly, there is a more noteworthy accentuation on showing evasion of lying, debasing behavior, false reverence, persecution, etc. The Sunnah Haddith After the Holy Quran, the following authority of the Sharia is the Sunnah and Haddith. The Sunnah in Arabic is meant the trodden way and is the lessons of Prophet Mohammed which contains the lawful, strict and social obligations of Islam. The Haddith is the customs and idioms of the Prophet which was protected by his nearest Companions. The Haddith and Sunnah are both particularly interwoven and in this manner amazingly hard to isolate. The contrast between the two is that the Haddith depend on the life of the Prophet Mohammed and in this way makes a true to life premise of Sharia Law. The Sunnah is then the development of the strict, social and legitimate commitments at first getting from the Haddith. There are a few thousand Haddith assortments, with al-Bukhari (d. 870) and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (d. 875) are viewed as the most solid Haddith gatherers in Sunni Islam who recorded around 16,475 Haddith consolidated (which completely surpassed a large portion of a million) . Shia I

Social Implications of Business Ethics Essay Example for Free

Social Implications of Business Ethics Essay In this assignment I will be taking a gander at different strategic approaches in any zone of action and clarify how those activities affect society all in all, the regions of movement I will talk about in this report are: Morals in fund, for example pay off Morals in human asset the executives for example separation Morals underway, for example creature testing Morals in deals and advertising, for example spamming Morals in licensed innovation, for example programming security I will likewise be researching how my picked business Timberland considers these issues and addresses them. The Timberland organization was set up in 1955 by the Swartz family. Initially a shoe store situated in Abington, Massachusetts the little privately-owned company has developed into one of the most effectively conspicuous brands of current occasions. Since its beginning in 1955, be it either under the Abington shoe organization brand name or under the Timberland organization brand name, one thing has continued as before, its business Code of Ethics Charter. Timberland Code of Ethics Charter Timberland has a site devoted to their convictions of morals and clarifies what is anticipated from their workers and what shoppers ought to anticipate from Timberland as a business with respect to morals. Their statement of purpose peruses, We accept the fair and moral direct of our workers is a fundamental essential to our prosperity as an organization. There is an immediate connection between the set of accepted rules of the organization and the workers, and the achievement of our corporate missions and objectives. Keeping up the best quality of moral conduct is steady with our basic beliefs of Humanity, Humility, Integrity and Excellence. Territory of Activity: Ethics in Finance With respect to morals, when a great many people consider morals they consider different outrages and unlawful exchanging which gives off an impression of being ever present in the news, for example, insider exchanging, pay off, campaigning and official compensation. A portion of the later untrustworthy activities which have happened are the MPs costs outrage which happened in mid 2009 and the financial emergency which began in late 2008. This is a worry for morals as people need to know who they are working with and in the event that they can confide in them, for instance If a business is blamed for being untrustworthy on the grounds that they paid off an individual from parliament so as to increase an uncalled for advantage over contenders so they could dodge paying a specific measure of expense or VAT then in addition to the fact that they are giving themselves a terrible name they are destroying the notoriety of their business partners and accomplices who may choose they no longe r wish to offer their assistance to that business so as to spare their own validity. NEED TO WRITE AN INTRODUCTION EXPLAINING WHY THIS AREA IS A CONCERN FOR ETHICS.CHECK YOUR NOTES! There are a few key zones where morals can be addressed as far as account and these include: * Insider exchanging is the unlawful exchanging, purchasing or selling of corporate stock dependent on data got which has not been made open and should stay secret; insider exchanging is a customary law broken by workers. The Timberland Company set up its Code of Ethics Charter to give affirmation to its clients yet in addition to give rules to representatives with the goal that they can unmistakably comprehend what is anticipated from them from the business. The Timberland Code of Ethics Charter unmistakably expresses that the protections laws set up inside the business carefully disallows insider exchanging and instructs representatives on the off chance that they are in question regarding what data can be shared and what to do in the event that they are in any uncertainty with regards to what data can be shared and what data must stay private. Workers and executives may not exchange or even suggest organization stock while possessing any data. Timberlands insider exchanging arrang ement applies to all workers and chiefs. * Bribery is a type of debasement where an individual or business may offer an installment or blessing to an individual in a place of trust so as to increase an unreasonable bit of leeway over different contenders. On the twentieth of July 2010 the UK service of Justice reported that another, advanced and complete pay off act will be brought into power in April 2011. The new demonstration replaces the current enactment known as the Prevention of Corruptions Act of 1889 1916. The Timberland Companys general standards, Code of Ethics Charter and consistence rules express their approach on pay off is that they are not allowed in any conditions and that they accept a pay off can be anything from a straightforward blessing or a covert installment. Their general standards additionally express that any people associated with tolerating or being engaged with pay off in at any rate will be considered responsible in an official courtroom and will be managed by the Federal Bureau of Investigati on. Pay off NEED TO DISCUSS * Executive compensation is the money related pay paid to an official authority inside an association, most administrators would get their fundamental pay alongside included motivating forces, for example, share choices, yearly rewards, pay rises and annuity plans. Numerous representatives in a business may feel crippled by the bay in pay among them and their CEO, particularly in the center of a downturn as the general population are being made increasingly more mindful of the rewards numerous administrators are getting while different workers are being made excess. Numerous individuals view this to be unscrupulous as it is removing cash from a lot of representatives and placing it into the pocket of one official who may not fill in as hard as the people who might be viewed as underneath them in the hierarchal structure of the business. Late news reports propose that the new CEO of the bank Barclays Bob Diamond is in line to get a reward of à ¯Ã¢ ¿Ã¢ ½8million notwithstanding just being in the activity for only 9 days, the story so far has caused shock among Barclays representatives who feel the cash ought to be given to existing workers or siphoned once again into the economy. The Timberland Company dont as of now have any freely visible arrangements or corporate rules in regards to official compensation. Official PAY NEED TO DISCUSS * Lobbying is a type of defilement when a business will utilize individual contacts, peer pressure, open weight or political activity so as to convince a legislator to settle on a choice which will profit the business. At present campaigning isn't unlawful which implies it is simple for large global associations to pull off changing enactment to profit them however influenced their rivals in the event that they have the correct associations with the perfect individuals in power. The Timberland Companys approach on campaigning is that no chief, official, official or supervisor has the position to penetrate or abuse any administration law in any nation that Timberland works in, nor may they take part in any action that includes profiting one individual gathering while others dont have the chance to. Campaigning NEED TO DISCUSS Territory of Activity: Ethics in Human Resource Management Human asset the board is the administration of the workforce of a business to guarantee adequate staff levels with the correct abilities that are appropriately propelled and similarly remunerated. The human asset office is one of the key components in Timberlands authoritative structure, without it the business would be a wasteful, useless business which fabricated inadequate items. The human asset office in the Timberland Company is answerable for administering an assortment of issues, for example, agreement of business infringement and worker issues and inquiries. The human asset division of Timberland as of late set up the Fair and Equal Treatment Policy. The strategy was intended to advance decency in the working environment. The code plainly expresses that no production line representative be trained through flogging, irritated, mishandled or risk worker retaliation based on communicating complaints anticipated on the infringement of fundamental human rights. To advance fairness, Timberlands code denies status separation dependent on race, shading, sex, religion, political sentiment or for some other explanation. At the point when an applicant is going after a position and is welcomed for a meeting it is significant that Timberland demonstration morally and treat each individual up-and-comer reasonably and similarly, they should not oppress any up-and-comer in any capacity whatsoever with respect to their age, race, shading, ethnicity, sex, religion or political perspectives. So as to stay as moral as conceivable Timberland should hope to change their enlistment procedure with the goal that they can guarantee no individual competitors will feel focused all through the enrollment procedure and that all the individual data assembled from the up-and-comers stays as secret as could be expected under the circumstances. Numerous businesses give candidates different tick boxes to fill in on their application frames, the main answer which shows up on each question that up-and-comers can tick is the appropriate response would prefer not to state. This eliminates segregation as businesses can not make pre decisions on any up-and-comers dependent on the data got in their application which may assist the competitor with being effective at their endeavor to land the position. To date Timberland presently can't seem to be blamed for segregation, this is because of the elevated levels of straightforwardness inside the business a Timberlands endeavors to expand buyers familiarity with what Timberland is attempting to accomplish as a business and what it is arranging corporately. One of the most developing worries among representatives is working environment reconnaissance through CCTV film, web action and email observing. Numerous organizations currently offer their own devoted email administration which permits representatives to speak with each other through email instead of passing notices to each other. Despite the fact that this may appear as though the business is offering something positive to the representatives, many accept there is a concealed motivation behind it. The overseers who screen the em

Feedburner Update COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Feedburner Update COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog It has come to my attention that we have experienced some issues recently with our Feedburner service.   If in the past you have entered your email over there on the right in the box with Subscribe written beneath it you should receive an automated email letting you know when a post has been added to the blog.   Although we have been posting almost every day on the blog, the emails noting such stopped going out recently. The back end of this blog is handled by a centralized department and sometimes upgrades are made that impact functionality.   I was recently made aware of this issue and have been told that service should be restored soon.   In the meantime, those who have applied are likely checking the blog on a daily basis to learn more about when decisions will be released.   I would encourage you to continue to do so.   Decisions have not started to go out yet, but when they do you can count on this blog for details. The topic of emails and admission decisions has come up recently when more than one candidate has expressed that their heart skips a beat each time an email from SIPA is received (thinking that the email will be related to their decision).   The last thing I want candidates to do is suffer in this way and I can let you know exactly what you can expect in terms of an email subject heading when your decision has been published on the application site for you to view. The email noting that your decision has been posted will still come from sipa_admission@columbia.edu (like most of our emails) but the subject heading will be: SIPA Admissions Decision Notification So, any other email you receive could be considered general business and there is no need for any heart skipping.   Thank you for your patience as we do our best to communicate clearly all of the aspects of the admission review process.

The Impact Of Evidence Based Nursing Practice On Patient Care

Criteria and process used for evidence-based nursing practice, and the impact of evidence-based nursing practice on patient care. The act of nursing practice requires the application of competent evidenced based practice (EBP) nursing care, supported by current research and theory development. Through the critical analysis and evaluation of studies, nurse leaders evaluate the components of research for its effective use in the daily practice of nursing. Moreover, this allows nurses to remain current with recommendations for patient care practices (Grove, Gray, Burns, 2015). The Alzheimer-Europe organization in 2009 compared the different types of research that impact patient care and are involved in the development of EBP. The organization compared a top down and bottom up approach to differentiate the methods used for research. However, recognizing each method impacts nursing practice and patient care. 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Why Fathers Should Be A Family Policy - 1459 Words

1.A. Fathers should be as equally engaged in parenting as much as mothers are typically expected. Policies Promoting Fatherhood, are centered on making parenting and childrearing equal for both the father and the mother. According to Bogenschneider’s definition of â€Å"family policy†, is a government role that â€Å"aims to protect, promote and strengthen families through functions such as childrearing and childcare. The family policy is meant to be a broad definition; to include things like defense policy, economic edicts or pollution controls are all counted in the definition of family policy (Bogenschneider, 2014). While the definition could be open-ended, promoting Fatherhood or Co-Parenting would qualify as a true family policy because it†¦show more content†¦The idea of â€Å"true paradox† is evident but is not always self-evident. According to Bogenschneider, it is easy to be persuaded towards one side or the other. True paradox can be addressed on more than one way, â€Å"pushing in the ignored direction, or simultaneously two opposing, yet valid, policy goals† (Bogenschneider, 2014). This is especially true when asking for both parents to share in childrearing and childcare. Sometimes, tradition conflicts with equality. Women want to be treated equally in most aspects of their lives while also being thought of in the traditional model as the primary caregiver. Finding balance for equally and also wanting freedom to do as one pleases, can be difficult when deciding who is going to care for the children while the other parent is off doing something she or he wants to do, including work. 1. The FMLA entitles eligible employees of covered employers to take unpaid, job-protected leave for specified and medical reasons. 12 weeks of unpaid leave to care for newborns or newly adopted children, or for serious medical problems for both an employee and relatives in a 12-moth period. This act applies to both the father and mother. For example, a father is just as entitled to take leave time to help with caring for a newborn child, as the mother that gave birth. 1. The first limitation is that the federal government could help expand the reach of the Family and Medical Leave, requiring businesses with less then 50

The Benefits and Costs of Two or More Countries Sharing a Common Currency Free Essays

Examine the benefits and costs of two or more countries sharing a common currency, and comment on the impact of the ‘one size fits all’ monetary policy of the Eurozone. Normally, the accumulation of a set of countries accepting a specific common currency is known as a monetary union. This involves the countries becoming part of the same trading bloc and accepting free trade policies between the member countries. We will write a custom essay sample on The Benefits and Costs of Two or More Countries Sharing a Common Currency or any similar topic only for you Order Now Since the focus of the question is centrally revolved around the monetary union, the other aspects of the union will not be considered in detail. Naturally, the prime example to use when discussing the use of a common currency is the European Monetary Union. Launched on January 1st 1999, the union boasts a 16 country agreement to use the same currency- the euro. For countries to merge by a single currency requires the merging countries to meet certain criteria. This obviously brings both benefits and costs to the table. Benefits are associated with higher stability of the union as only those countries that meet the minimum requirements can join. This allows the union to ensure that the countries that join add something to the union and add value to the currency. For example, conditions in the European Monetary Union state entrant countries must have interest rates within 2% of the 3 lowest interest rate countries in the EMU and also have inflation within 1. 5%. This is important because if we take a scenario where the inflation rate is excessively high in a country, then this will affect the value of the currency by devaluing it. This devaluation has clear knock on effects as the devaluation will cause the cost of imports to rise. Domestic consumers will also shy away from domestic consumption as they see the high prices and so they will shift their consumption on consumer durables from other countries. Exports would be heavily affected by this scenario as the foreign countries would see the high prices associated with the importing of the goods and shift their interest into consumption from countries with lower relative price levels. Not only does the high inflation associated with the currency affect consumption but also investment. The unstable level of inflation will deter foreign direct investment and also reduce the net domestic investment as the returns to the investment would have a high risk associated. So obviously having specific criteria that member countries must meet help to ensure stability in the union. The negative associated with having these criteria is the one size fits all policy which will be discussed later. There are many costs and benefits associated with having the same currency. There is a key advantage to consumers and residents in the country of having the same currency. The transaction costs associated with exchanging the currencies is eliminated. This means that if domestic consumers were to travel abroad to countries within the monetary union, the identical currency would enable them to spend abroad without the need to swap currencies. This advantage is more of a social benefit as this would reduce stress to the consumer. This is because the consumer would not be worrying about if their money would arrive on time. Also the excess commission associated with changing the currencies is eliminated. Although again this commission only represents a small amount of GDP the advantage is again a social benefit as the consumer escapes the hassle associated with the exchange of the currency- often quite a stressful factor when planning to travel. There is also a benefit associated with price transparency where if the same good is sold in many of the countries in the monetary union, then it is easy for the consumer to compare prices. This should reduce price discrimination and increase competition. This is a healthy scenario for the consumer as they would benefit from price competition- often the price of the good or service falls. Despite this potential benefit there is evidence that this is not the case and that price differentiation exists- an example being price differences within member countries in the EU. The same currency and stability associated with the monetary union encourages transnational companies to invest. This is because there would multiple countries across the zone to invest in and get returns from as they all follow the same currency and would all be under the same central control. This may help the multi-national countries achieve greater economies of scale as there would be easier trading and investment capabilities across the zone. This would lower average costs for firms and increase the relative GDP in the zone. This would increase economic growth. Therefore having the same currency enables economic growth in a country through increased business confidence as there is increased stability. The drawbacks of using the same currency are also quite evident. The main and key drawback is the ‘one size fits all’ policy. Here the monetary policy is controlled by the central bank. Countries have no ability to set the interest rates in the country. This can be disastrous in a country with low consumption or investment levels. This is because if the central bank placed high interest rates on countries within the union, consumption would be further detracted, leading to a drop in economic growth. Therefore the loss of individual control is a major factor that needs to be considered before becoming part of the same currency. There can also be a case where the central bank will set interest rates that accommodate the larger, higher productive countries in the union. This will mean the smaller countries will grow at a slower rate and potentially lead to greater inequality. The one size fits all policy may mean that the union becomes less flexible and therefore the policies can place constraints on economic growth for countries. This can cause inefficiency as the production will not be at optimum potential and will limit countries. Another huge drawback is the effective exchange rate differences would be eliminated. For example, during the economic boom of the early 2000’s, England had a very strong exchange rate compared to the other European countries. This enabled cheap imports for the country, increasing domestic consumer welfare. By switching to the euro, the imports would not have been cheaper and would have left consumers with a drop in welfare as they would not have been gaining through a stronger exchange rate. Overall the costs of switching to the same currency have its drawbacks outweighing its benefits. This is especially the case for the one size fits all policy as this is the policy that loses the country its individuality and means the country loses control of its monetary policy. How to cite The Benefits and Costs of Two or More Countries Sharing a Common Currency, Papers

Accounting theory & Current Issues Half a Defence of Positive

Question: Discuss about the Accounting theory Current Issues Half a Defence of Positive. Answer: Introduction: The article Half a Defence of PositiveAccounting Research composed by Paul V Dunmore primarily points in assessing the effect of positive approach in bookkeeping study. The present review essentially points in assessing the effect of human conduct on bookkeeping background. Also, the article speaks to general points of interest in the positive bookkeeping hypothesis, which could help in understanding the philosophy and in addition the epistemology of the research. Paul V Dunmore in his article for the most part recognizes the method of reasoning for hypothesis testing, which could be utilized as a part of distinguishing feasibleaccounting research. In any case, the article likewise stresses on Popper's fabrication criterion, which portrays that statistical testing is weaker and can't be utilized as a part of identifying the reasonable bookkeeping theories. The researcher in the research principally points in assessing the previously mentioned article where research questions, theoretical framework, limitations and importance of the article is for the most part looked into. The study successfully explores and positive bookkeeping approach, which is been delineated in the article. Summary of the Article: The general article Half a Defence of PositiveAccounting Research for the most part portrays the effect of epistemology and ontology of positive research. Furthermore, the article primarily assesses the recent practices of bookkeeping, which is not sufficient in meeting essential necessities of research program. Additionally, the article likewise shows the utilization of human conduct in furnishing foundation, which could be utilized as a part of on a very basic level building up the examination. Besides, the article likewise investigates the general various reasons for human conduct, which is available in an organization. All things considered, the article likewise assesses pertinent ontological and epistemological containing ventures, which is compelling in distinguishing the deficiency related with positive bookkeeping research. Moreover, logical research tasks are for the most part utilized as a part of the article with the assistance of hypothesis testing, which could bolster sc holarly enquiries of the research project (Coad, Jack, and Kholeif 2015). Subsequently, the article gives inside and out representations on positive research and bookkeeping. Crum, Hartkens and Hill (2014) expressed that recognizable proof of satisfactory strategy in assessing the research hypotheses could in the long run help in adding pertinent researches into to the bookkeeping section. The article additionally centres in introducing the idea of ontology and epistemology, which could portray the misrepresentation of hypothesis testing. The article expressed in its assessment of hypothesis, obviously numerous hypotheses were being misrepresented in view of 5% valuation. What's more, bookkeeping hypothesis is predominantly a protected innovation, which can't be evaluated utilizing hypothesis method. Subjective positive bookkeeping exploration is additionally said in the article, which measures certain bookkeeping marvel to take satisfactory decisions. The general limitations and shortcoming of statistical hypothesis is investigated in the article. Gold, Hunton and Gomaa (2015) specified that theory testing is just utilized as a part of determining valuation for arithmetical qualities, while any conceptual instances are not obliged by the strategy. Research Questions or Hypothesis: The article for the most part depicts diverse research questions, which is been utilized as a part of the article to accomplish feasible research result. The accompanying exploration questions have been utilized as a part of the article. How to distinguish whether bookkeeping exploration could satisfy diverse logical destinations? To distinguish how epistemology and ontology could influence the general research program? Identify how worldview can free positive bookkeeping with satisfactory theorizing and experimenting? Nonetheless, the research question addressed in the article predominantly looks at the accompanying substance. To recognize the courses in which epistemology and cosmology could influence a specific research program. To portray the degree in which positive research result could help in accomplishing the logical destinations. The article primarily delineates that whether positive bookkeeping hypothesis is more extensive idea in contrast with positive research program. Lastly, the research looks at the Kuhn's outline of the general science, which could be utilized by positive bookkeeping to accomplish its potential. Theoretical Framework: The hypothetical frameworks that are utilized as a part of this exploration for meeting its targets are quickly delineated as takes after: Cases of positive research in bookkeeping: The operation identified with adjusted self-enthusiasm among the gatherings is the after-effect of the wonders of bookkeeping through express or suggested contracts in various sorts of companies. This considers the decisions of bookkeeping decisions, which the business managers attempt, evaluating and revealing decisions that the auditors embrace, the regulators decisions for setting principles and the expert scholarly advices. In the expressions of Ball (2013), it is essential to discover the nature and sort of data embraced with respect to the financial specialists for settling on speculation choices. This signifies the conduct of the people is reasonable; be that as it may, this is not obvious for the sorts of amusements happening from the hypothesis related with constructive bookkeeping. In addition, subsequent to analyzing the different inquires about of bookkeeping, the settings of bookkeeping have been surveyed when sound conduct is absent, which is the strategy of making judgements for the examining experts. Likewise, this considers the courses through which the business chiefs practice circumspection in the execution assessment frameworks (Ball 2016). From this time forward, these illustrations mean to give confirm that the program relating to positive research is more extensive as opposed to the hypothesis of positive bookkeeping. A specific research meaning to get an outline of the nature and reasons of the marvels of bookkeeping conforms to the logical bookkeeping research. Logical ontology and epistemology: As per Beattie (2014), epistemology is a field of science that expects to portray the different methodologies accessible for acquiring knowledge of the world. In actuality, ontology expects to depict the exercises and their connection in noting the question. At to start with, the human organization and the socially made nature of parts, practices and affiliations speak to that the earth has a target continuation independent of the individuals and members and the exercises ought not to contain normal causes (Carnegie and Napier 2016). In addition, it is impractical to watch the world regardless of the encounters of the people and depictions of the members. Hence, due to these epistemological and ontological issues, the mission to get an understanding of the reasons for bookkeeping wonders is an activity, which couldn't be accomplished. The issue identified with positive research is the investigation of significance and experience, as it expects to investigate the causes. The distinctive surges of the exploration with different gatherings of goals could inhabit a similar time. Another huge issue is related with organization. This is on account of if the people have their own particular will, their moves may prompt causes, which are not consenting to the logical review. In this manner, the general patterns in conduct could be portrayed; in any case, a few inspectors and bookkeepers may act in an alternate form. The reasons for conduct couldn't be recognized in the goal world; be that as it may, the same could be led in a better place. Prerequisites of a suitable system identified with positive research: It has been recognized from the contextual investigation that thorough testing of the through models is fundamental for cautious examination of the variable estimations. Also, the scientific demonstrating is required to test and build up the hypothetical models. For the usage of scientific displaying in this research program, the field pre-occupation is expected to move from tractability to plausibility (Guthrie and Parker 2016). The researcher has suggested that higher focus on estimation is required instead of testing as it were. The fundamental purpose for this is a bias in solid distribution is evident against the bookkeeping measurement by not considering the linking of the same with the hypothesis. The lack of assets in bookkeeping is there a result of the inaccessibility of adequate assets (Penman 2016). Limitations and Significance of the Article: The recent article picks up a profound comprehension about the procedure of positive bookkeeping from a more extensive perspective of a research program that has the expectation to set up certain easygoing relationship of the practices of the human in the arrangement of bookkeeping. The exploration likewise helps with growing profound comprehension about the venture of scholarly research that comprehends the circumstances and end results relationship of the world. The study is additionally useful to comprehend the different logical research programs in financial and additionally bookkeeping that can be viewed as the procedure of positive research (Edwards 2013). The study has set up the reality with the assistance of different illustrations that the positive research program is more noteworthy and more extensive than the hypothesis of positive bookkeeping. The article has been fruitful to pick up information about various bookkeeping speculations and the way the investigation of Kuhn can be exhibited as an appropriate angle for positive bookkeeping research. Be that as it may, the essential output that comprises of measurable outcomes contains un-interpretable connecting of coefficient (Carnegie 2014). Aside from some real significance, there are some significant confinements of the procedure of positive bookkeeping research. The basis behind the testing of statistical hypothesis to the adulteration measure of Popper is weak. One of the significant limitations of the research procedure of positive bookkeeping is the advancement of different sorts of easygoing hypothetical model. Notwithstanding, a noteworthy gap can be seen between the real procedure of the study of positive bookkeeping and what are expected to bear on various types of scholarly program. Then again, the Kuhn portrayal additionally neglects to offer right perspective about the world (Parker 2013). Aside from this, the idea arrangement amongst ontology and epistemology in connection to some specific bookkeeping speculations can be considered as non-illusive. Another huge limitation of the study is that it has been fruitful to perceive the way that the progress rate of different sorts of logical tasks is moderate. Sub sequently, with the end goal of positive commitment to various types of logical undertakings, the princess of positive bookkeeping can likewise gain moderate ground, as the present advance is illusive. Along these lines, one might say that the idea of the article has not clarified the method for making positive commitment to different sorts of logical undertakings and the article has not disclosed the best approach to propel the procedure of positive bookkeeping in a speedier rate. Conclusion: From the above study, one might say that the primary target of the recent study is to assess different parts of epistemology alongside ontology in the positive research. From the research, it can be viewed as that the present bookkeeping practices does not effectively satisfy the required criteria of positive bookkeeping process. From the real findings of the study, one might say that diverse bookkeeping model derived from different scientific outcomes can't be analyzed, as they all are untraceable and deficiently created. Henceforth, from the above discussion, it can be determined that there is a solid requirement for better and compelling bookkeeping estimation techniques that can have a thorough extent of testing. Aside from this, it is required in the positive bookkeeping exploration to join estimation and it is expected to shift the concentration from the procedure of hypothesis testing, as it is not the effective procedure. Besides, the present study likewise infers that there is a solid need to build up the procedure of information documenting with the end goal of the specification of bookkeeping ideas. Generally speaking, one might say that the procedure of positive bookkeeping has an incredible essentialness. References Ball, R., 2013.Accounting informs investors and earnings management is rife: Two questionable beliefs.Accounting Horizons,27(4), pp.847-853. Ball, R., 2016. Why We Do International Accounting Research.Journal of International Accounting Research,15(2), pp.1-6. Beattie, V., 2014. Accounting narratives and the narrative turn in accounting research: Issues, theory, methodology, methods and a research framework.The British Accounting Review,46(2), pp.111-134. Bublitz, B., Philipich, K. and Blatz, R., 2015. An Example of the Use of Research Methods and Findings as an Experiential Learning Exercise in an Accounting Theory Course.Journal of Instructional Pedagogies,16. Carnegie, G.D. and Napier, C.J., 2016. Historiography in Accounting Research. Coad, A., Jack, L. and Kholeif, A.O.R., 2015. Structuration theory: reflections on its further potential for management accounting research.Qualitative Research in Accounting Management,12(2), pp.153-171. Crum, W.R., Hartkens, T. and Hill, D.L.G., 2014. Non-rigid image registration: theory and practice.The British Journal of Radiology. Carnegie, G., 2014. Historiography for accounting: Methodological contributions, contributors and thought patterns from 1983 to 2012.Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal,27(4), pp.715-755. Dalla Man, C., Pillonetto, G., Riz, M. and Cobelli, C., 2015. An index of parameter reproducibility accounting for estimation uncertainty: theory and case study on -cell responsivity and insulin sensitivity.American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism,308(11), pp.E971-E977. Edwards, J.R., 2013.A History of Financial Accounting (RLE Accounting)(Vol. 29). Routledge. Gold, A., Hunton, J.E. and Gomaa, M.I., 2015. Retraction: The Impact of Client and Auditor Gender on Auditors' Judgments.Accounting Horizons,29(3), pp.743-743. Guthrie, J. and Parker, L.D., 2016. Whither the accounting profession, accountants and accounting researchers? Commentary and projections.Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal,29(1), pp.2-10. Lukka, K. and Vinnari, E., 2014. Domain theory and method theory in management accounting research.Accounting, Auditing Accountability Journal,27(8), pp.1308-1338. Parker, L.D., 2013. Contemporary university strategising: the financial imperative.Financial Accountability Management,29(1), pp.1-25. Penman, S., 2016. Valuation: accounting for risk and the expected return.Abacus,52(1), pp.106-130. Power, M.K. and Gendron, Y., 2015. Qualitative research in auditing: A methodological roadmap.Auditing: A Journal of Practice Theory,34(2), pp.147-165.

Examination Of The Slave Experience Essays -

Examination Of The Slave Experience Ryan G Davis History 211 Section 13W Examination of the Slave Experience Most African Americans of the early to mid-nineteenth century experienced slavery on plantations similar to the experiences described by Frederick Douglass; the majority of slaves lived on units owned by planters who had twenty or more slaves. The planters and the white masters of these agrarian communities sought to ensure their personal safety and the profitability of their enterprises by using all the tactics-physical and psychological-at their command to make slaves obedient. Even Christianity was manipulated in a way that masters communicated to their slaves that God had commanded them to obey their masters. Hence, by word and deed whites tried to convince blacks that they had been ordained superior thus affording them the right to rule over blacks. However, it is a great tribute to the extraordinary resourcefulness and spirit of African Americans that most of them resisted these pressures and managed to retain an inner sense of their own individuality and worth. Still, the reas on why African Americans were able to maintain a sense of individuality and worth remains disputed. Only a tiny fraction of all slaves ever took part in organized acts of violent resistance against white power. Most realized as Frederick Douglass did that the odds against a successful revolt were very high, and bitter experience had shown them that the usual outcome was death to the rebels. Consequently, they devised sublime, safer and more ingenious ways to resist white dominance. For Frederick Douglass, it was clear that his way of fighting the power was to become educated so that he may better understand his predicament and the wrongfulness of slavery. However, he described that knowing that: wit?[was] the pathway from slavery to freedom. (pg. 58) ?Reading? enabled me to utter my thoughts, and to meet the arguments brought forward to sustain slavery; but while [it] relieved me of one difficulty, [it] brought on another even more painful than the one of which I was relieved. The more I read the more I was led to abhor and detest my enslavers. (pg. 61) The knowledge which Frederic k Douglass gained, did not free him from his horrible situation, but rather compounded his discontentment as a slave. It is hard to determine how other slaves were able to maintain a sense of individuality and worth, despite not having the opportunity or possess the resourcefulness to obtain the knowledge of Frederick Douglass. Nevertheless, most slaves had established and participated in a subculture separate from any other in the United States at that time. One might argue that it was from the realm of this subculture and fundamental beliefs, derived from the horrible experiences of slavery, that provided African Americans the strength necessary to hold their heads high and look beyond their immediate condition. Religion was the essence of the newly emerging African American subculture. Borrowed from the fiery revivalism of white participants of the first Great Awakening and their own African religions, slaves created their own version of Christianity. Miraculously, they broke away from the teachings that their white masters had bestowed upon them, which taught them that blacks were commanded by God to obey their superior white masters. Instead they developed beliefs that they were not inferior, but were created equally in the eyes of God, and thus deserved equality. Their new religion stressed fellowship , brotherly love, equality, and salvation from slavery. Frederick Douglass' observations of some of the songs sung at church and in the fields are as follows: They [the songs] told a tale of woe which was then altogether beyond my feeble comprehension; they were tones loud, long, and deep; they breathed the prayer and complaint of souls boiling over with the bitterest anguish. Every tone was a testimony against slavery, and a prayer to God for deliverance from chains. (pg. 47) The true religion was practiced at night, often secretly, and was led by black preachers. The underground slave religion was a highly emotional affair that consisted of singing, shouting, and dancing. For Frederick Douglass and all other slaves, the singing of songs and religion were more of an affirmation of the joy in life rather than a rejection of worldly pleasures and temptations. They spoke

Free Essays on Mind

Other Minds Can I know what another person is thinking or feeling? If so, how? by Tom Nuttall (tutor: Anthony Rudd) The problem of Other Minds is a true philosophical enigma. It is apt to strike children with no philosophical education whatsoever, yet remains intractable to many academics. Broadly speaking, the problem can be divided into three questions. Firstly, how do I come to believe that there are minds in the world other than my own? Secondly, how can I justify my belief that there are minds in the world other than my own? Thirdly, what can I state about the mental states of minds other than my own?. The question we are dealing with here falls largely into the third category, although of course issues relating to the other two will also be involved. Firstly, it is imperative to assert that, in looking for ‘knowledge’, we are not aiming for logical certainties - we are not aiming to show that any propositions about other minds can be demonstrated with absolute certainty equivalent to that of mathematical truths. Philosophy ever since Descartes has tended to be defined by scepticism: either it aims to produce sceptical theories or it aims to refute them. And sceptics tend towards extremity in their doubts. It must be stated here and now that there are not, and never can be, any theories that prove demonstratively that other minds exist, or that I know others’ mental states. This is not what should be aimed at in attempting to solve the problem. As Austin puts it "To suppose that the question ‘How do I know that Tom is angry?’ is meant to mean ‘How do I introspect Tom’s feelings?’ is simply barking up the wrong gum-tree." Most philosophers agree that their theories only bestow a greater or lesser amount of probability onto statements about other minds (although there are exceptions, e.g. Peter Strawson’s attempt to argue transcendentally for the existence of other minds thro... Free Essays on Mind Free Essays on Mind Other Minds Can I know what another person is thinking or feeling? If so, how? by Tom Nuttall (tutor: Anthony Rudd) The problem of Other Minds is a true philosophical enigma. It is apt to strike children with no philosophical education whatsoever, yet remains intractable to many academics. Broadly speaking, the problem can be divided into three questions. Firstly, how do I come to believe that there are minds in the world other than my own? Secondly, how can I justify my belief that there are minds in the world other than my own? Thirdly, what can I state about the mental states of minds other than my own?. The question we are dealing with here falls largely into the third category, although of course issues relating to the other two will also be involved. Firstly, it is imperative to assert that, in looking for ‘knowledge’, we are not aiming for logical certainties - we are not aiming to show that any propositions about other minds can be demonstrated with absolute certainty equivalent to that of mathematical truths. Philosophy ever since Descartes has tended to be defined by scepticism: either it aims to produce sceptical theories or it aims to refute them. And sceptics tend towards extremity in their doubts. It must be stated here and now that there are not, and never can be, any theories that prove demonstratively that other minds exist, or that I know others’ mental states. This is not what should be aimed at in attempting to solve the problem. As Austin puts it "To suppose that the question ‘How do I know that Tom is angry?’ is meant to mean ‘How do I introspect Tom’s feelings?’ is simply barking up the wrong gum-tree." Most philosophers agree that their theories only bestow a greater or lesser amount of probability onto statements about other minds (although there are exceptions, e.g. Peter Strawson’s attempt to argue transcendentally for the existence of other minds thro...

Why the Media Coverage of African American Children are less then the Essay

Why the Media Coverage of African American Children are less then the Coverage of Caucasian Children - Essay Example Calvert et.al (14-16) claims that African American children are believed to have been raised by single parents and come from a poor background, but Caucasian children are from the wealthiest society. Additionally, African-Americans have a black race, while Caucasians are white in color, which dominates in America. Such factors lead to more media focus in Caucasian kids than African American children. In this regard, this paper aims at explaining why media focus is more on Caucasian children than children of the minority African-Americans. Media has become one of the most powerful institutional forces in the society. It is responsible for shaping and directing attention cultural values and attitudes. Additionally, most of the aspects in life are impact on the media as well as influenced by the media. The way the media represent a certain social group gives us important clues on its norms, attitudes, and social values towards the particular group. In this case, media focus is more on C aucasian children than African-American. Some of the reasons that explain why media choose to present Caucasian kids and African-Americans in different ways are; to start with the African-Americans are exploited and marginalized (Tolleson et al, 23-25). The society views African-Americans children as inferior because of their color as well as background. Most of their parents struggle to make ends meet in the world economy. To add to this, Caucasian children are over-represented among the advantaged segment of child population, while the other group is disproportionately disadvantaged. As a result, the media focuses more on the group that is over-represented in the society, forgetting about the minority group (Franklin, 32-33). Moreover, the media naturalizes and perpetuates Caucasian kids more naturally superior than Afro-American kids. It tends to reward those who have physical appearance of whites than blacks, with more coverage and exposure on commercial advertisements than Afro -Americans kids who have black appearance. The message it tries to pass to the society is that, black and white color is contradictory and therefore, Africans-Americans kids should try balance their color in order to be accepted in the society (Franklin 32-33). According to, Calvert et.al (14-16) media plays an important role in reconstruction and construction of hegemonic ideologies like racism by naturalizing and creating social realty. For example, it re-presents and re-dramatizes white and black kids within a certain framework of interpretation, which facilitates the passing of messages and preferred ways in both colors. It is argued that Caucasian kids enter the media world in terms of cultural, sports, economic powers and institutional than Afro-American kids. These factors reinforce the color differences through media oppression and subordination of African-Americans kids. The media also fails to cover the achievements of African-Americans focusing on Caucasian children achie vement. They are also under-represented in the society, despite their growth in many areas for the last decades. Niven and Zilber (34-36), claim that African-Americans only receive 10% of media coverage. In case they receive coverage, Afro-Americans are not perceived as the other dominant group but as a stereotype group with reference to something else. To add to this, the Caucasian children dominate the media in most programs and events because of their physical appearance and color attractiveness. For example, in sporting activities they are seen to win in most activities like swimming, tennis diving, and others, thus dominating in most of them. The African-Americans are associated with school-sponsored games while Caucasian childre

Analiza Web-sites, blogs, pod cast, videos, articles, and powe points Essay

Analiza Web-sites, blogs, pod cast, videos, articles, and powe points - Essay Example He had short summaries of each of his books on a separate page so that the reader could examine only one book at a time. This page was all about the fantasy world that Silverstein has created. In contract to Silverstein’s site, Charlotte’s Library was boring. It is written by a woman who is an archeologist and she reviews fantasy books for children. The website itself does not really do much for fantasy except give someone who is looking for fantasy books an idea of some that may be good to read. The website is very structured and it seemed more geared towards adults who were looking for good books for their children or teenagers. This was disappointing in a way because the reviews were written more for parents than they were for children. Unfortunately, I would say that this website would not be one that I would send anyone to because it did not really make me want to read the reviews. Another site that is similar to Charlotte’s Library is the Annotated List of Children’s Poetry Books. This is a great site that has annotations about the books that makes a reader want to check them out from their local library and read them. This is an opportunity to see how well the author of the site, Wendy E. Betts, liked the books. Her annotations are intriguing and some of them leave you hanging for more.

Space Power as Force Multiplier

Space Power as Force Multiplier CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION 1. The Space has always been a great matter of interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to develop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.[4]. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages. 2. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.[6]. 3. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid: food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.[8]. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in military and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier. METHODOLOGY Statement Of Problem 4. To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead. Justification Of Study 5. Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning. 6. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military programmes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Communications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region[9]. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power. 7. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future[10]. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region. Scope 8. This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context. Methods Of Data Collection 9. The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and newspapers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation. Organisation Of The Dissertation 10. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. (b) Chapter II Understanding Space power. (c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power. (d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier. (e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead. (f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion. CHAPTER – II UNDERSTANDING SPACE POWER The beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names. —Confucius 1. Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilization of space medium. Definitions 2. Space Space is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.[14] 3. Escape Velocity Satellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.[15] 4. Satellite Inclination Every satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between that plane and that of the Earths equator, measured on its north bound pass over the equator, is known as satellite inclination. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as polar orbits. Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be seen by satellite sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities. 5. Decay With a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.[16] 6. Low Earth Orbit (LEO). This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours. 7. Semi-synchronous Orbit . This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit. 8. Molniya Orbit . This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.[17] 9. Geostationary Orbit (GEO) . This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small figure of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles. 10. Geosynchronous Orbit . This orbit is also circular and inclined and is at an altitude of 35,700 km. This orbit has little military or other uses because of its large figure of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term geostationary, is tending to be replaced by geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to become a strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.[18] 11. Super-synchronous Orbit . The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.[19] 12. Near-Earth Orbit (NEO) or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)[22]. 13. The cislunar zone consists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention[23]. 14. LSO consists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon. 15. The translunar zone is comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.[24] 16. Outer Space In the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire space law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies[26]. 17. The tactical space environment The tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. Figure 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres[27]. 18. During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions[28]. CLICHÉ ABOUT SPACE POWER 19. The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.[29] Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy. 20. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and space environment: Space and the atmosphere represent two di stinct medium environments physically different from each other; while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.[31]. 21. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power[32]. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space w ill be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only. 22. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied together[33]. 23. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.[34] 24. The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justify—on military grounds alone—the necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a mili tary space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force[35]. Air and Space relationship 25. The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime ele ­vated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.[38] 26. Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.[40] 27. It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.[42] CHAPTER – III Air and space power is a critical—and decisive—element in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power. —General Michael E. Ryan ROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWER Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. Guilio Douhet 1. Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.[43] 2. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, like the sensor technology, satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.[44] 4. Today, events unfold before our eyes around the world as if we were there. We have advance warning of adverse weather as it develops. We can communicate with people 10 or 10,000 miles away with equal ease, and a small re ­ceiver tells us our exact position and how fast we are moving in the air, on land, or at sea. 5. Space power is becoming an in ­creasingly important aspect of na ­tional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its poten ­tial. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are pre-pared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Today, space power pro ­vides supporting functions such as commu ­nications, reconnaissance, and signals from global positioning system (GPS) satellites— tomorrow, space may become the site of combat operations. Concern about the fu ­ture direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doc ­trinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and dip lomatic factors[45]. 6. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have con ­sidered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these, and so many more things, unquestionable facts. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot live—or fight and win—without it. 7. Although many people refer to Operation Desert Storm as the first space war, it did not mark the first use of space capabilities during conflict. During the war in Vietnam, space sys ­tems—communications and meteorological satellites—provided near-real-time data that was essential for combat operation The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support. Since then, we have worked hard to integrate the high-tech advantages provided by speed-of-light space capabilities into all our forces—air, land, and sea. Those efforts significantly improved our American joint way of war, and they paid off during Op ­eration Iraqi Freedom. 8. American forces led a coalition that set benchmarks for speed, precision, lethality, reach, and flexibility. As President George W. Bush said on 1 May 2003 aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln, Operation Iraqi Freedom was carried out with a combination of preci ­sion and speed and boldness the enemy did not expect, and the world had not seen be-fore. From distant bases or ships at sea, we sent planes and missiles that could destroy an enemy division, or strike a single bunker. In a matter of minutes—not hours, days, or weeks as in past wars—commanders identified and engaged targets and received timely battle damage assessment. Lt Gen T. Michael Buzz Moseley, the combined force air component commander, reinforced the role that space capabilities played when he said, The satel ­lites have been just unbelievably capable . . . supporting conventional surface, naval, spe ­cial ops and air forces. Theyve made a huge difference for us. 9. The need to protect ones own space assets, and if necessary attack those of the bad guy, will equally inevitably move the war in the air into space. The USAF already has an F15-borne anti-satellite system. Other potential systems include a co-orbital satellite equipped with an explosive warhead or anti-satellite mines.- For every offensive system deployed, a potential adversary whose finances permit this sort of warfare, would have to field a defensive mechanism. This level of Star Wars may be beyond most nations. But the scope for information operations should not be underestimated particularly against commercial satellites the performance information for which is readily available on the Internet.[46] 10. Supporting Role 11. Ocean reconnaissance satellites can carry side-ways looking radars to enable them to locate ships and take other maritime measurements in all weather, and at all times of the day. Very precise satellite radars, using synthetic aperture techniques, may shortly be able to measure the level of the sea so accurately that they would be able to detect passage of a submarine beneath it in some areas.[47] 12. The most commonly used sensor in satellites is the camera. The photo reconnaissance cameras on satellites are sensitive to em radiation with a wave length of between 0.004 mm to 0.007 mm and in the IR region of wave length between 0.3 mm and 3000 mm.[48] 13. Photo reconnaissance satellites are the most important of reconnaissance satellites especially during peace time, and for monitoring conflicts around the world. Of all the satellites by China, USA and the erstwhile Soviet Union, about 40% have been used for photographic reconnaissance from LEO. Orbiting at altitudes as low as 200 km, some of these photo reconnaissance satellites are thought to resolve details smaller than 30 cm.[49] The Soviet satellites have a life span of between two weeks and two months. Until the early eighties their films were recovered only when the satellite was brought down, using re-entry trajectory and parachutes. Since they orbit below 200 km at their lowest point, they need regular boosting from on-board rockets to maintain orbit. It is believed that the digital film scanning and transmission is being used by the Russians now. In comparison the American LEO satellites have longer life spans than those of their Soviet counter-part. They are known to have been in orbit for seve ral months and can return film capsules to earth by ejecting them over sea (near Hawaii). These are either caught by aircraft or picked up by a back up ship. Photographs can also be developed and scanned on board the satellite and the information relayed back to ground stations immediately by use of radio signals. 14. Early warning satellites are equipped with infra-red detectors which can detect an ICBM, thereby providing the threatened country with a 30 minute warning. The United States has three geostationary early warning Defence Support Programme (DSP) satellites. One watches the Russian ICBM fields, and the other two the Pacific and Atlantic oceans for SLBM attacks. For geographical reasons, GEO was less attractive to the Soviet Union, and therefore they launched their early warning satellites in Molniya orbits. Complete coverage was obtained by a constellation of nine satellites, with shorter life spans than their American counter-parts. By ensuring the virtual impossibility of a surprise missile attack out of the blue, early warning satellites may be regarded as playing a stabilising role during peace time 15. These satellites have a dual character since during peace time they can help monitor the Limited Test Ban and Non-Proliferation Treaties by watching for above ground nuclear tests. The Unites States launched six successive pairs of super-synchronous Vela satellites for this purpose between 1963 and 1970. Designed at firs to operate for only six months, the first three pairs exceeded this limit by enormous margins, often working for nearly than 10 years. 16. Active Military Application Space can be defined as the new battlefield after Land, Sea and Air. It is the final frontier or final goal, which every one desires to conquer or reach. Space is fast emerging as not only the new Economic High Ground but also as the new military frontier of becoming a new Strategic High Ground.[50] 17. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites have been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance[51]. Space Based Lasers for Ballistic Missile Defense 18. Interest in utilizing space-based lasers (SBLs) for ballistic missile defense (BMD) arose when two facts emerged. First, ballistic missiles are relatively fragile and do not resist laser energy and secondly, chemical lasers could project missile killing amounts of energy over 3,000 kilometers. These two facts peaked political interest over the possibility of placing laser weapons in space. SBLs could be used to intercept ballistic missiles in their boost phase, thus dropping disabled missiles on an enemys own territory. 19. The Lethality of A Space-Based Laser 20. Delivering a high-intensity laser beam for a long enough time to disable a target is the objective of a laser weapon. Laser energy can damage missile boosters if the laser has a moderate intensity combined with a sustained dwell time on the booster, the laser will then burn through the missile skin. A 10 meter mirror with a hydrogen fluoride (HF) laser beam would yield a 0.32 micro radian divergence angle and create a laser spot 1.3 meters in diameter at a range of 4,000 meters. The distribution of 20 MW over the laser spot would create an energy flux of 1.5 kilowatts per square centimeter (kW/cm2). The laser spot would need to dwell on the target for 6.6 seconds to create the nominal lethal energy of 10 kilojoules per square centimeter (kJ/cm2).[56] Penetration deeper than this would not be required since the laser would not be in a position to attack missiles in flight until they had reached this altitude. Also, clouds could obscure the booster below a ceiling of 10 kilometers. Table 1: Requirements for several laser weapons ASAT Space ASAT Ground Space-based BMD Laser type chem (HF) chem (DF) chem (HF) Laser wavelength 2.7:m 3.8:m 2.7:m Laser location space ground space Target distance 3,000km 10km 3,0 Space Power as Force Multiplier Space Power as Force Multiplier CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION 1. The Space has always been a great matter of interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to develop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.[4]. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages. 2. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.[6]. 3. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid: food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.[8]. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in military and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier. METHODOLOGY Statement Of Problem 4. To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead. Justification Of Study 5. Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning. 6. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military programmes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Communications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region[9]. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power. 7. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future[10]. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region. Scope 8. This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context. Methods Of Data Collection 9. The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and newspapers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation. Organisation Of The Dissertation 10. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. (b) Chapter II Understanding Space power. (c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power. (d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier. (e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead. (f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion. CHAPTER – II UNDERSTANDING SPACE POWER The beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names. —Confucius 1. Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilization of space medium. Definitions 2. Space Space is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.[14] 3. Escape Velocity Satellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.[15] 4. Satellite Inclination Every satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between that plane and that of the Earths equator, measured on its north bound pass over the equator, is known as satellite inclination. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as polar orbits. Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be seen by satellite sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities. 5. Decay With a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.[16] 6. Low Earth Orbit (LEO). This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours. 7. Semi-synchronous Orbit . This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit. 8. Molniya Orbit . This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.[17] 9. Geostationary Orbit (GEO) . This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small figure of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles. 10. Geosynchronous Orbit . This orbit is also circular and inclined and is at an altitude of 35,700 km. This orbit has little military or other uses because of its large figure of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term geostationary, is tending to be replaced by geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to become a strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.[18] 11. Super-synchronous Orbit . The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.[19] 12. Near-Earth Orbit (NEO) or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)[22]. 13. The cislunar zone consists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention[23]. 14. LSO consists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon. 15. The translunar zone is comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.[24] 16. Outer Space In the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire space law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies[26]. 17. The tactical space environment The tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. Figure 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres[27]. 18. During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions[28]. CLICHÉ ABOUT SPACE POWER 19. The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.[29] Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy. 20. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and space environment: Space and the atmosphere represent two di stinct medium environments physically different from each other; while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.[31]. 21. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power[32]. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space w ill be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only. 22. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied together[33]. 23. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.[34] 24. The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justify—on military grounds alone—the necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a mili tary space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force[35]. Air and Space relationship 25. The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime ele ­vated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.[38] 26. Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.[40] 27. It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.[42] CHAPTER – III Air and space power is a critical—and decisive—element in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power. —General Michael E. Ryan ROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWER Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. Guilio Douhet 1. Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.[43] 2. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, like the sensor technology, satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.[44] 4. Today, events unfold before our eyes around the world as if we were there. We have advance warning of adverse weather as it develops. We can communicate with people 10 or 10,000 miles away with equal ease, and a small re ­ceiver tells us our exact position and how fast we are moving in the air, on land, or at sea. 5. Space power is becoming an in ­creasingly important aspect of na ­tional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its poten ­tial. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are pre-pared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Today, space power pro ­vides supporting functions such as commu ­nications, reconnaissance, and signals from global positioning system (GPS) satellites— tomorrow, space may become the site of combat operations. Concern about the fu ­ture direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doc ­trinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and dip lomatic factors[45]. 6. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have con ­sidered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these, and so many more things, unquestionable facts. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot live—or fight and win—without it. 7. Although many people refer to Operation Desert Storm as the first space war, it did not mark the first use of space capabilities during conflict. During the war in Vietnam, space sys ­tems—communications and meteorological satellites—provided near-real-time data that was essential for combat operation The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support. Since then, we have worked hard to integrate the high-tech advantages provided by speed-of-light space capabilities into all our forces—air, land, and sea. Those efforts significantly improved our American joint way of war, and they paid off during Op ­eration Iraqi Freedom. 8. American forces led a coalition that set benchmarks for speed, precision, lethality, reach, and flexibility. As President George W. Bush said on 1 May 2003 aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln, Operation Iraqi Freedom was carried out with a combination of preci ­sion and speed and boldness the enemy did not expect, and the world had not seen be-fore. From distant bases or ships at sea, we sent planes and missiles that could destroy an enemy division, or strike a single bunker. In a matter of minutes—not hours, days, or weeks as in past wars—commanders identified and engaged targets and received timely battle damage assessment. Lt Gen T. Michael Buzz Moseley, the combined force air component commander, reinforced the role that space capabilities played when he said, The satel ­lites have been just unbelievably capable . . . supporting conventional surface, naval, spe ­cial ops and air forces. Theyve made a huge difference for us. 9. The need to protect ones own space assets, and if necessary attack those of the bad guy, will equally inevitably move the war in the air into space. The USAF already has an F15-borne anti-satellite system. Other potential systems include a co-orbital satellite equipped with an explosive warhead or anti-satellite mines.- For every offensive system deployed, a potential adversary whose finances permit this sort of warfare, would have to field a defensive mechanism. This level of Star Wars may be beyond most nations. But the scope for information operations should not be underestimated particularly against commercial satellites the performance information for which is readily available on the Internet.[46] 10. Supporting Role 11. Ocean reconnaissance satellites can carry side-ways looking radars to enable them to locate ships and take other maritime measurements in all weather, and at all times of the day. Very precise satellite radars, using synthetic aperture techniques, may shortly be able to measure the level of the sea so accurately that they would be able to detect passage of a submarine beneath it in some areas.[47] 12. The most commonly used sensor in satellites is the camera. The photo reconnaissance cameras on satellites are sensitive to em radiation with a wave length of between 0.004 mm to 0.007 mm and in the IR region of wave length between 0.3 mm and 3000 mm.[48] 13. Photo reconnaissance satellites are the most important of reconnaissance satellites especially during peace time, and for monitoring conflicts around the world. Of all the satellites by China, USA and the erstwhile Soviet Union, about 40% have been used for photographic reconnaissance from LEO. Orbiting at altitudes as low as 200 km, some of these photo reconnaissance satellites are thought to resolve details smaller than 30 cm.[49] The Soviet satellites have a life span of between two weeks and two months. Until the early eighties their films were recovered only when the satellite was brought down, using re-entry trajectory and parachutes. Since they orbit below 200 km at their lowest point, they need regular boosting from on-board rockets to maintain orbit. It is believed that the digital film scanning and transmission is being used by the Russians now. In comparison the American LEO satellites have longer life spans than those of their Soviet counter-part. They are known to have been in orbit for seve ral months and can return film capsules to earth by ejecting them over sea (near Hawaii). These are either caught by aircraft or picked up by a back up ship. Photographs can also be developed and scanned on board the satellite and the information relayed back to ground stations immediately by use of radio signals. 14. Early warning satellites are equipped with infra-red detectors which can detect an ICBM, thereby providing the threatened country with a 30 minute warning. The United States has three geostationary early warning Defence Support Programme (DSP) satellites. One watches the Russian ICBM fields, and the other two the Pacific and Atlantic oceans for SLBM attacks. For geographical reasons, GEO was less attractive to the Soviet Union, and therefore they launched their early warning satellites in Molniya orbits. Complete coverage was obtained by a constellation of nine satellites, with shorter life spans than their American counter-parts. By ensuring the virtual impossibility of a surprise missile attack out of the blue, early warning satellites may be regarded as playing a stabilising role during peace time 15. These satellites have a dual character since during peace time they can help monitor the Limited Test Ban and Non-Proliferation Treaties by watching for above ground nuclear tests. The Unites States launched six successive pairs of super-synchronous Vela satellites for this purpose between 1963 and 1970. Designed at firs to operate for only six months, the first three pairs exceeded this limit by enormous margins, often working for nearly than 10 years. 16. Active Military Application Space can be defined as the new battlefield after Land, Sea and Air. It is the final frontier or final goal, which every one desires to conquer or reach. Space is fast emerging as not only the new Economic High Ground but also as the new military frontier of becoming a new Strategic High Ground.[50] 17. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites have been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance[51]. Space Based Lasers for Ballistic Missile Defense 18. Interest in utilizing space-based lasers (SBLs) for ballistic missile defense (BMD) arose when two facts emerged. First, ballistic missiles are relatively fragile and do not resist laser energy and secondly, chemical lasers could project missile killing amounts of energy over 3,000 kilometers. These two facts peaked political interest over the possibility of placing laser weapons in space. SBLs could be used to intercept ballistic missiles in their boost phase, thus dropping disabled missiles on an enemys own territory. 19. The Lethality of A Space-Based Laser 20. Delivering a high-intensity laser beam for a long enough time to disable a target is the objective of a laser weapon. Laser energy can damage missile boosters if the laser has a moderate intensity combined with a sustained dwell time on the booster, the laser will then burn through the missile skin. A 10 meter mirror with a hydrogen fluoride (HF) laser beam would yield a 0.32 micro radian divergence angle and create a laser spot 1.3 meters in diameter at a range of 4,000 meters. The distribution of 20 MW over the laser spot would create an energy flux of 1.5 kilowatts per square centimeter (kW/cm2). The laser spot would need to dwell on the target for 6.6 seconds to create the nominal lethal energy of 10 kilojoules per square centimeter (kJ/cm2).[56] Penetration deeper than this would not be required since the laser would not be in a position to attack missiles in flight until they had reached this altitude. Also, clouds could obscure the booster below a ceiling of 10 kilometers. Table 1: Requirements for several laser weapons ASAT Space ASAT Ground Space-based BMD Laser type chem (HF) chem (DF) chem (HF) Laser wavelength 2.7:m 3.8:m 2.7:m Laser location space ground space Target distance 3,000km 10km 3,0